An Attempt To Date
the Rules For Roman Numerals
G.D.O'Bradovich III
October 1, 2012
The rules of addiction and subtraction of Roman Numerals are well known and will not be addressed on this page. In Book 1 of "History: Science or Fiction" by Anatoly Fomenko, we read that that the rules of Roman Numerals were still being worked out as late as the 1600's. Of course, Mr. Fomenko gives some examples from cornerstones, but he does not provide enough details for me to agree with his statements.
The OED, under the discussion for the letter "V", gives an example from the Coverdale Bible (1535) from the book of Job. The sample text states that Job had "V.C." oxen and "V.C." asses. We know this should be read as "500" oxen and "500" asses. However, under the standard rules of Roman Numerals, this would be read as "95" oxen and "95" asses. We would expect the use of "D" for 500". Therefore, we conclude that the editors of the Bible may not have known that "D" was a shorthand for "500".
In 1535, "V.C." must have been read as "five""hundred". We can infer that the convention that the value of the letter "D" is equal to "500" was unknown. Additionally, the translators or editors were not aware of the well known rule of subtracting lesser numbers from greater numbers.
I can not confirm that the rules for Roman Numerals were still being worked out as late as the 17th century. However, this example from 1535 clearly demonstrates that:
The OED, under the discussion for the letter "V", gives an example from the Coverdale Bible (1535) from the book of Job. The sample text states that Job had "V.C." oxen and "V.C." asses. We know this should be read as "500" oxen and "500" asses. However, under the standard rules of Roman Numerals, this would be read as "95" oxen and "95" asses. We would expect the use of "D" for 500". Therefore, we conclude that the editors of the Bible may not have known that "D" was a shorthand for "500".
In 1535, "V.C." must have been read as "five""hundred". We can infer that the convention that the value of the letter "D" is equal to "500" was unknown. Additionally, the translators or editors were not aware of the well known rule of subtracting lesser numbers from greater numbers.
I can not confirm that the rules for Roman Numerals were still being worked out as late as the 17th century. However, this example from 1535 clearly demonstrates that:
1.) "V." is read as "five"
2.) "C." is read as "one hundred" 3.) there is no subtraction or addition of the numbers 4.) the value of the letter "D" has not been established. |
Therefore, the rules for using Roman Numerals must date later than 1535. From the above, we can understand that all the Roman Numerals were in place by 1460 at the latest. The practice of subtraction was unknown until the 13th century, that is, "IV" and "VI" were both valued as six. The rule of subtraction must not have been in standard usage in the early 16th century, since the Coverdale Bible does not use it in the passage from the book of Job.
MDCXXX
The Westerkert in Amsterdam dated 1630.
The Coverdale Bible (1535) clearly shows "144,000" is written as "hundred and xliii" in the fourteen chapter of Revelation. In the eleventh chapter, "1,260" is written as "M.iiC. and LX. dayes". The editors obviously knew the full stops (periods) have a purpose and should not be left out. In order to be read correctly, "ii" and "C" need to be interpreted as "two hundred". The Erasmus edition of 1519 has 1,260 spelled out completely as "miille ducentis sexaginta". In the Latin and English versions we do not have the number depicted as we would expect, namely, "MCCLX".
Eramsus writes out of the number of the beast in Latin ("sexcenti sexaginasex"), but for the Greek the letter values are used. (Chi Xi Stau). Chapter 14 is indicated by "XIIII", again demonstrating no knowledge of the subractive properties of Roman Numerals.
Bishop's Bible (1557) has "syxe hondred, threscore, and syxe". and as late as 1599, the "Hutter Polygot" represented "14" as "XIIII".
Eramsus writes out of the number of the beast in Latin ("sexcenti sexaginasex"), but for the Greek the letter values are used. (Chi Xi Stau). Chapter 14 is indicated by "XIIII", again demonstrating no knowledge of the subractive properties of Roman Numerals.
Bishop's Bible (1557) has "syxe hondred, threscore, and syxe". and as late as 1599, the "Hutter Polygot" represented "14" as "XIIII".
The Roman Numbers
courtesy of the Oxford English dictionary
M
In form M. The roman numeral symbol for a thousand. In the 15th and 16th centuries it could be substituted for the numeral word in any context; it is now rare except in dates represented in roman numerals. Secondary sources in red.
1396 in Sc. Antiquary (1900) 14 217
The secvnde day of May the yher of our lorde mccc neynty and sex.
c1415 (▸c1390) Chaucer Prioress's Tale (Lansd.) 1628
God ȝeue þe monke a M [v.r. Ml.] last quade ȝere.
?a1425 (▸c1400) Mandeville's Trav. (Titus C.xvi) (1919) 3,
I..passed the see, in the ȝeer of oure lord Jhesu crist mcccxxii.
1433–4 in J. Raine Fabric Rolls York Minster (1859) 53
In xij.m de stonebrodes, in v.m Scotesemnailes, 5s. 5d. In vij.m dccc Scotesemnailes, 9s. 2d.
a1500 (▸?a1400) Tale King Edward & Shepherd (Cambr.) (1930) 66 (MED),
Þe Kyngys men oon to me A M pounde and mare.
1535 Bible (Coverdale) Judges xii. 6
There fell of Ephraim two & fortye M.
1553 tr. Short Catech. 62 b,
We be feble, weake, subiect to a thousand periles, a M. temptations.
1603 G. Owen Descr. Penbrokshire (1892) 139
The M of oysters at the waterside is vsuallie sold for xd or xijd.
1616 J. Chamberlain Let. 20 July (1939) II. 18
Sir John Roper [was created] baron of Tenem [= Teynham], or Ten Ms [MS: ten ms] as Ned Wiwark terms yt beeing the summe they were rated at.
1655 J. Howell 4th Vol. Familiar Lett. 123
A Doxological Cronogram including this present yeer, mdclv.
1711 in C. R. Lounsbury Illustr. Gloss. Early Southern Archit. & Landscape (1994) 220,
4 M Lath..£7, To 16 M Nails..£5, To 9 M Brick..£13. 10. 0, To 10 M Cypress Shingles..£12.
1756 J. Warton Ess. on Pope I. iv. 207
Bartolomeo Bocchini..printed at Venice MDCXLI, a tragico-heroi-comic poem.
1396 in Sc. Antiquary (1900) 14 217
The secvnde day of May the yher of our lorde mccc neynty and sex.
c1415 (▸c1390) Chaucer Prioress's Tale (Lansd.) 1628
God ȝeue þe monke a M [v.r. Ml.] last quade ȝere.
?a1425 (▸c1400) Mandeville's Trav. (Titus C.xvi) (1919) 3,
I..passed the see, in the ȝeer of oure lord Jhesu crist mcccxxii.
1433–4 in J. Raine Fabric Rolls York Minster (1859) 53
In xij.m de stonebrodes, in v.m Scotesemnailes, 5s. 5d. In vij.m dccc Scotesemnailes, 9s. 2d.
a1500 (▸?a1400) Tale King Edward & Shepherd (Cambr.) (1930) 66 (MED),
Þe Kyngys men oon to me A M pounde and mare.
1535 Bible (Coverdale) Judges xii. 6
There fell of Ephraim two & fortye M.
1553 tr. Short Catech. 62 b,
We be feble, weake, subiect to a thousand periles, a M. temptations.
1603 G. Owen Descr. Penbrokshire (1892) 139
The M of oysters at the waterside is vsuallie sold for xd or xijd.
1616 J. Chamberlain Let. 20 July (1939) II. 18
Sir John Roper [was created] baron of Tenem [= Teynham], or Ten Ms [MS: ten ms] as Ned Wiwark terms yt beeing the summe they were rated at.
1655 J. Howell 4th Vol. Familiar Lett. 123
A Doxological Cronogram including this present yeer, mdclv.
1711 in C. R. Lounsbury Illustr. Gloss. Early Southern Archit. & Landscape (1994) 220,
4 M Lath..£7, To 16 M Nails..£5, To 9 M Brick..£13. 10. 0, To 10 M Cypress Shingles..£12.
1756 J. Warton Ess. on Pope I. iv. 207
Bartolomeo Bocchini..printed at Venice MDCXLI, a tragico-heroi-comic poem.
D
D, the sign for 500 in Roman numerals, as mdcccxciii = 1893. [Understood to be the half of CIƆ, earlier form of M = 1,000.] (Formerly occasionally written Dc.)
1459 Inventory in Paston Lett. I. 469
Summa, DCCCC lxv. unces.
1459 Inventory in Paston Lett. I. 471
Summa, Dc unces.
1569 R. Grafton Chron. II. 16
This Thurston obteyned the rule of the Abbey againe for the price of D. pound.
1459 Inventory in Paston Lett. I. 469
Summa, DCCCC lxv. unces.
1459 Inventory in Paston Lett. I. 471
Summa, Dc unces.
1569 R. Grafton Chron. II. 16
This Thurston obteyned the rule of the Abbey againe for the price of D. pound.
C
C, now rarely c., = Latin centum a hundred; the common sign for 100 in Roman numerals, as in dates, numbering of books or chapters; so CC = 200, CCCC or CD = 400; formerly written ii.c., etc. Also formerly = hundredweight, now cwt.
1420 in F. J. Furnivall Fifty Earliest Eng. Wills (1882) 46
Also iij.c of ledyn wyȝtis.
1509 S. Hawes Pastime of Pleasure xix. xxii,
The shyp was great fyve c. tonne to charge.
1535 Bible (Coverdale) 2 Sam. xxi. 16
Thre C. weight of brasse.
1535 Bible (Coverdale) Judges xvi. 5
So wyll we geue the euery man a M. and an C. syluerlinges.
1709 London Gaz. No. 4509/3
About 2s. per C.
1420 in F. J. Furnivall Fifty Earliest Eng. Wills (1882) 46
Also iij.c of ledyn wyȝtis.
1509 S. Hawes Pastime of Pleasure xix. xxii,
The shyp was great fyve c. tonne to charge.
1535 Bible (Coverdale) 2 Sam. xxi. 16
Thre C. weight of brasse.
1535 Bible (Coverdale) Judges xvi. 5
So wyll we geue the euery man a M. and an C. syluerlinges.
1709 London Gaz. No. 4509/3
About 2s. per C.
The Roman numeral symbol for Fifty.
As in the case of the other Roman numeral symbols, this was originally not the letter, but was identified with it owing to coincidence of form. In the ancient Roman notation L (with a stroke above) represented 50,000.
1484 Caxton tr. Subtyl Historyes & Fables Esope iv,
xl or l crownes.
As in the case of the other Roman numeral symbols, this was originally not the letter, but was identified with it owing to coincidence of form. In the ancient Roman notation L (with a stroke above) represented 50,000.
1484 Caxton tr. Subtyl Historyes & Fables Esope iv,
xl or l crownes.
X
The Roman numeral symbol for ten (or †tenth); so xx = twenty (in early use also for ‘score’, as iijxx = ‘three score’, 60; also occas. xxti = Latin viginti), xxx, occas. xxxty = thirty, etc.
c1000 Anglo-Saxon Chron. ann. 409 (Parker MS.)
Þæt wæs embe .xi. hund wintra & x. wintra þes þe heo getimbred was.
a1400 Wyclif's BibleProl. (1850) I. 17
There weren not left..no but v. hundrid horsmen, and x. charis, and x. thousind of footmen.
▸c1426 J. Audelay Poems (1931) 70
Ȝour x comawndmentis ȝe most con.
c1450 Mirour Saluacioun (Roxb.) 146
The feest of kyng Aswere was ixxx dayes duryng.
?1478 W. Paston in Paston Lett. & Papers (2004) I. 649
He seythe ye be xxtis. in hys dette.
1481 Howard Househ. Bks. (Roxb.) 9
For j.m. jc iiijxx maryners.
1481–90 Howard Househ. Bks. (Roxb.) 451
The nombir of the horse ys vijxx iij.
1488 Henry's Wallace v. 909
Xxxty with him off nobill men at wage.
1489 M. Paston in Paston Lett. & Papers (2004) I. 669
Wretyn at London þe x day of Februare.
1535 in S. Tymms Wills & Inventories Bury St. Edmunds (1850) 126 To my valentyn Agnes Illyon xs.
1537 T. Cromwell in R. B. Merriman Life & Lett. Cromwell (1902) II. 53
Frome London the xth daye of Apryll.
1638 J. Ford Fancies iii. 35
If my watch keep faire decorum, Three quarters have neere past the figure X.
1686 Bp. G. Burnet Some Lett. conc. Switzerland iv. 241
Pope Leo the Xs time.
In writing the name Christ n., esp. in abbreviated form, X or x represents the first letter of Greek khristos, and XP or xp the first two letters. Hence in early times Xp̄, in modern times Xt, Xt, and X, are used as abbreviations of the syllable Christ, alone or in derivatives; thus † Xp̄en, Xp̄n = christen adj., † Xp̄enned = christened adj.; † Xpian, Xtian = Christian adj. and n.; Xtianity = Christianity n.; Xmas n. (Xstmas, Xtmas) = Christmas n.
c1000 Anglo-Saxon Chron. ann. 409 (Parker MS.)
Þæt wæs embe .xi. hund wintra & x. wintra þes þe heo getimbred was.
a1400 Wyclif's BibleProl. (1850) I. 17
There weren not left..no but v. hundrid horsmen, and x. charis, and x. thousind of footmen.
▸c1426 J. Audelay Poems (1931) 70
Ȝour x comawndmentis ȝe most con.
c1450 Mirour Saluacioun (Roxb.) 146
The feest of kyng Aswere was ixxx dayes duryng.
?1478 W. Paston in Paston Lett. & Papers (2004) I. 649
He seythe ye be xxtis. in hys dette.
1481 Howard Househ. Bks. (Roxb.) 9
For j.m. jc iiijxx maryners.
1481–90 Howard Househ. Bks. (Roxb.) 451
The nombir of the horse ys vijxx iij.
1488 Henry's Wallace v. 909
Xxxty with him off nobill men at wage.
1489 M. Paston in Paston Lett. & Papers (2004) I. 669
Wretyn at London þe x day of Februare.
1535 in S. Tymms Wills & Inventories Bury St. Edmunds (1850) 126 To my valentyn Agnes Illyon xs.
1537 T. Cromwell in R. B. Merriman Life & Lett. Cromwell (1902) II. 53
Frome London the xth daye of Apryll.
1638 J. Ford Fancies iii. 35
If my watch keep faire decorum, Three quarters have neere past the figure X.
1686 Bp. G. Burnet Some Lett. conc. Switzerland iv. 241
Pope Leo the Xs time.
In writing the name Christ n., esp. in abbreviated form, X or x represents the first letter of Greek khristos, and XP or xp the first two letters. Hence in early times Xp̄, in modern times Xt, Xt, and X, are used as abbreviations of the syllable Christ, alone or in derivatives; thus † Xp̄en, Xp̄n = christen adj., † Xp̄enned = christened adj.; † Xpian, Xtian = Christian adj. and n.; Xtianity = Christianity n.; Xmas n. (Xstmas, Xtmas) = Christmas n.
a1100 Anglo-Saxon Chron. ann. 1021
On Xp̄es mæsse uhtan.
c1380 Eng. Wycliffite Serm. in Sel. Wks. I. 337
In þis word Vix ben but þree lettris, V, and I, and X. And V bitokeneþ fyve; I bitokeneþ Jesus; and X bitokeneþ Crist.
1426 Lydgate tr. G. de Guileville Pilgrimage Life Man 19951
Xp̄c þi sone, þat in þis world alighte, Vp on þe cros to suffre his passioun.
1485 Rolls of Parl. VI. 280/1
The most famous, blessed and Xpen Prince.
1485 Rolls of Parl. VI. 336/1
Any Kyng or Prynce in England Xp̄enned.
1573 J. Baret Aluearie at Y,
The long mistaking of this woorde Xp̃s, standing for Chrs by abbreuation which for lacke of knowledge in the greeke they tooke for x, p, and s, and so like~wise Xp̃ofer.
1598 S. Rowlands Betraying of Christ (Hunterian Club) 25
Xpian the outward, inward, not at all.
1634 W. Prynne Let. in S. Gardiner Documents Proc. against W. Prynne (1877) 33
Such right..as your Xtianity, place, and function joyntly require.
1685–6 MS. in Bk. Com. Pr. 1662 (Bodl.)
My first child..Xstened on thursday the 28 of the same month.
a1697 J. Aubrey Brief Lives: Milton (MS. Aubrey 8. lf. 63)
He was so faire, that they called him the lady of Xts coll.
1711 T. Hearne Remarks & Coll. (1889) III. 155
This Note I took out of a Book of Mr. Urry of Xt. Church.
On Xp̄es mæsse uhtan.
c1380 Eng. Wycliffite Serm. in Sel. Wks. I. 337
In þis word Vix ben but þree lettris, V, and I, and X. And V bitokeneþ fyve; I bitokeneþ Jesus; and X bitokeneþ Crist.
1426 Lydgate tr. G. de Guileville Pilgrimage Life Man 19951
Xp̄c þi sone, þat in þis world alighte, Vp on þe cros to suffre his passioun.
1485 Rolls of Parl. VI. 280/1
The most famous, blessed and Xpen Prince.
1485 Rolls of Parl. VI. 336/1
Any Kyng or Prynce in England Xp̄enned.
1573 J. Baret Aluearie at Y,
The long mistaking of this woorde Xp̃s, standing for Chrs by abbreuation which for lacke of knowledge in the greeke they tooke for x, p, and s, and so like~wise Xp̃ofer.
1598 S. Rowlands Betraying of Christ (Hunterian Club) 25
Xpian the outward, inward, not at all.
1634 W. Prynne Let. in S. Gardiner Documents Proc. against W. Prynne (1877) 33
Such right..as your Xtianity, place, and function joyntly require.
1685–6 MS. in Bk. Com. Pr. 1662 (Bodl.)
My first child..Xstened on thursday the 28 of the same month.
a1697 J. Aubrey Brief Lives: Milton (MS. Aubrey 8. lf. 63)
He was so faire, that they called him the lady of Xts coll.
1711 T. Hearne Remarks & Coll. (1889) III. 155
This Note I took out of a Book of Mr. Urry of Xt. Church.
† Xp̄en, Xp̄n = christen adj.,
† Xp̄enned = christened adj.;
† Xpian, Xtian = Christian adj. and n.;
Xtianity = Christianity n.;
Xmas n. (Xstmas, Xtmas) = Christmas n.
† Xp̄enned = christened adj.;
† Xpian, Xtian = Christian adj. and n.;
Xtianity = Christianity n.;
Xmas n. (Xstmas, Xtmas) = Christmas n.
V
The Roman numeral symbol for: Five (or fifth).
13.. K. Alis. 1851
Anon he doþ his bemen blowe, v c. on a þrowe.
1340 Ayenbite (1866) 23
Þe v. boȝ of prede.
▸c1449 R. Pecock Repressor (1860) 23, v. Chapiter.
The ve. principal argument..is this.
1484 Caxton Fables of Æsop, Alfonce iii,
[Of the x tonnes] v were ful of oylle, & the other v were but half ful.
1530 J. Palsgrave Lesclarcissement 58
As appereth in the iii chaptre and the v rule of the same.
1535 Bible (Coverdale) Job i. 3, v. C. yock of oxen, v. C. she asses.
a1637 B. Jonson Eng. Gram. i. ii, in Wks. (1640) III
Our numerall Letters are, I [for] 1. V [for] 5.
1788 Gibbon Decline & Fall V. xlviii. 6
A single chapter will include, III. The Bulgarians, IV. Hungarians, and, V. Russians.
13.. K. Alis. 1851
Anon he doþ his bemen blowe, v c. on a þrowe.
1340 Ayenbite (1866) 23
Þe v. boȝ of prede.
▸c1449 R. Pecock Repressor (1860) 23, v. Chapiter.
The ve. principal argument..is this.
1484 Caxton Fables of Æsop, Alfonce iii,
[Of the x tonnes] v were ful of oylle, & the other v were but half ful.
1530 J. Palsgrave Lesclarcissement 58
As appereth in the iii chaptre and the v rule of the same.
1535 Bible (Coverdale) Job i. 3, v. C. yock of oxen, v. C. she asses.
a1637 B. Jonson Eng. Gram. i. ii, in Wks. (1640) III
Our numerall Letters are, I [for] 1. V [for] 5.
1788 Gibbon Decline & Fall V. xlviii. 6
A single chapter will include, III. The Bulgarians, IV. Hungarians, and, V. Russians.
The Roman numeral symbol for One. This was not originally the letter, but a single line denoting unity. It is repeated for the units up to 3 (II, III), formerly, as still on a dial-plate, to 4 (IIII). These are added to symbols of higher numbers, as VI = 6, XII = 12, XXIII = 23, LI = 51, CII = 102, etc.
Prefixed to V and X, it diminishes them by 1: IV = 4, IX = 9. (In Middle English MSS. and early printed books these symbols are very frequent instead of the corresponding words, being usually written with a point before and after, thus, ‘he hadde . iiii. c. knyghtes’.)
1450 W. Somner in Four C. Eng. Lett. 4
He, with ij or iij of his men.
1728 E. Chambers Cycl.
I in the ordinary Roman way of numbering signifies One; and when repeated, signifies as many Units as it is repeated times.
1728 E. Chambers Cycl. (at cited word),
In Abbreviatures and Cyphers I. frequently represents the whole Word Jesus.
Prefixed to V and X, it diminishes them by 1: IV = 4, IX = 9. (In Middle English MSS. and early printed books these symbols are very frequent instead of the corresponding words, being usually written with a point before and after, thus, ‘he hadde . iiii. c. knyghtes’.)
1450 W. Somner in Four C. Eng. Lett. 4
He, with ij or iij of his men.
1728 E. Chambers Cycl.
I in the ordinary Roman way of numbering signifies One; and when repeated, signifies as many Units as it is repeated times.
1728 E. Chambers Cycl. (at cited word),
In Abbreviatures and Cyphers I. frequently represents the whole Word Jesus.
Addendum
The following are Latin glyphs.
The glyph for "Deus" can be understood as the letters "C" and "D" and represented as "C.D." or as: